Nomads of the Steppe: The Hidden Protagonists of World History – A Grand Journey from Scythians to Mongols
Stretching from east to west, the vast steppes have been a colossal proving ground for human history. Starting with the fertile Manchurian Plain between the Lesser Khingan and Greater Khingan mountain ranges, the steppe zone extends west from the Greater Khingan Mountains. It encompasses the Mongolian Plateau (from the Greater Khingan to the Altai Mountains), passes through the Junggar Basin (west of the Altai Mountains and north of the Tian Shan Mountains), crosses the Central Asian Plateau and the Kazakh steppes, skirts the northern shores of the Aral and Caspian Seas, and reaches the Ukrainian steppe north of the Black Sea, eventually connecting to the Hungarian Plain.
For ages, countless nomadic peoples have lived and thrived in these expansive grasslands, experiencing cycles of rise and fall. Once relegated to the "periphery" of world history, their narratives are now being re-evaluated as "mainstream," "core history" for understanding the trajectory of human civilization. This article will trace the approximate history of the steppe nomads, focusing on the Mongolian Plateau, and explore how their legacies continue to resonate today.
1. The Legendary Horsemen, The Scythians (8th Century BCE – 3rd Century BCE)
While there are various theories about the emergence of the Scythians (11th, 8th, or 6th century BCE), they were first recorded in the 5th-century BCE Greek historian Herodotus's work, 'Histories.' Some scholars even estimate their territory to have been larger than that of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, or even Alexander the Great's empire.
Due to their nomadic nature, the Scythians did not leave detailed written records, but they are presumed to be of Iranian-Aryan descent. The Amu Darya River, flowing in northwestern Iran and southern Uzbekistan, served as a boundary. Iranians (Iran, Afghanistan) called the region below this river 'Iran,' while the region above it (Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) was called 'Turan.' This is similar to how the Chinese pejoratively referred to surrounding peoples as 'Dongyi, Xirong, Nanman, Beidi' (Eastern barbarians, Western barbarians, Southern barbarians, Northern barbarians), and how Koreans called the Jurchens 'Orangkae.'
Briefly touching on the etymology of 'Orangkae,' it originates from 'Oriankhai.' The Mongols used 'Oriankhai' to refer to the mountain dwellers in the northwestern part of the Mongolian steppe, which translates roughly to 'mountain bumpkins.' It seems this term was transmitted to us as 'Orangkae' during the period when the Mongols ruled Goryeo. Interestingly, Subutai (Subedei), one of Genghis Khan's greatest generals, was from the Oriankhai tribe
2. The Rulers of East Asia, The Xiongnu (3rd Century BCE – 1st Century CE)
The history of the Xiongnu, arguably the most dramatic in steppe history, begins with the famous tale of Modu Chanyu. Modu's father, Touman Chanyu, had unified several steppe tribes, but the Dayuezhi (Greater Yuezhi) kingdom lay to the west, and the Donghu (Eastern Hu) to the east. Touman Chanyu sent Modu as a hostage to the Yuezhi, then later waged war against them. Modu, however, made a miraculous escape from enemy territory and returned.
Touman Chanyu, impressed by his son, gave him command of a unit. However, Modu harbored deep resentment towards his father. He trained his soldiers using 'Myeongjeok' (鳴鏑, whistling arrows), commanding them to shoot in the direction of his whistling arrow. First, he shot an arrow at his beloved horse; some soldiers hesitated and were executed. Next, he shot at his favorite concubine; again, some hesitated and were also executed. Finally, Modu aimed an arrow at his father, Touman Chanyu, and all his subordinates shot their arrows in unison, killing the Chanyu.
Having seized power, Modu conquered the powerful Yuezhi lands and drove the Yuezhi people westward. Interestingly, one of the five tribes that formed the Yuezhi kingdom, the Kushans, later established the Kushan Empire spanning from India to Iran and propagated Mahayana Buddhism.
To the east of the Xiongnu lay the formidable Donghu tribe. The Donghu initially demanded horses from the Xiongnu, and Modu Chanyu, despite his officials' anger and calls for war, simply paid tribute. Next, they demanded women, including princesses. Again, Modu Chanyu offered them up. However, when the Donghu demanded to take an undefinable, barren territory between the two nations, Modu Chanyu declared, "Land is the foundation of a nation." He executed the officials who suggested giving it away, then attacked the Donghu and made the land Xiongnu territory.
Those who underestimated the Xiongnu, lost land, and fled eastward settled in the Xianbei Mountains and became the Xianbei people, while those who settled in Wuhuan Mountains became the Wuhuan people. There are theories suggesting a connection between the Wuhuan people and our Dongyi (Eastern Barbarian) ethnic group.
The reason Qin Shi Huang began building the Great Wall of China was precisely his fear of Xiongnu invasions. After the unified Qin dynasty fell within 15 years, Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu and reunified China under the Han dynasty. To eliminate the troublesome Xiongnu to the north, Liu Bang personally led a large army into battle but was defeated and held captive at Baideng Mountain for seven days. He only managed to return alive after bribing the Chanyu's mother and agreeing to pay tribute. What would Chinese history have been like had Liu Bang not been allowed to return?
For the next 100 years or so, the Han dynasty maintained peace by paying annual tribute of women, grain, fabrics, and treasures to the Xiongnu, effectively becoming a tributary state of the Xiongnu. During the reign of the fifth Xiongnu Chanyu, Yizhixie Chanyu, the Han Emperor Wu waged war against the Xiongnu, seeking revenge for generations of subjugation, through his generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing.
At this time, there was a king named Xiutu under Yizhixie Chanyu, one of two kings defeated by Huo Qubing. Fearing execution by Yizhixie Chanyu for his defeat, the other defeated king, Kunye, killed Xiutu and surrendered to Emperor Wu. Xiutu's son was Jin Midi (the surname Jin was bestowed by Emperor Wu). Jin Midi lived a life similar to a slave, managing horses under Emperor Wu, but earned trust by saving Emperor Wu during an assassination attempt and later rose to the position of Marquis of Dutu (秺侯). This was the highest rank for a common official, excluding royalty.
Jin Midi's descendants held great power in the Han dynasty. However, problems arose when Wang Mang usurped the Former Han and established the Xin dynasty. Wang Mang's wife was from Jin Midi's family, so it seems Jin Midi's descendants sided with Wang Mang. Unfortunately, Wang Mang's Xin dynasty was overthrown by Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han after just 15 years. Jin Midi's descendants fled to the Silla region to escape retribution, and Seonghanwang, a 5th-generation descendant of Jin Midi, became Kim Alji, the progenitor of the Silla Kim clan. From the reign of King Michu onward, the Kim clan seized the throne previously held by the Park and Seok clans. This historical account is now largely accepted, supported by records from King Munmu's stele and Chinese texts. It's fascinating how the Xiongnu are connected to us in this way.
Returning to the Xiongnu, after Emperor Wu's attacks, they split into Eastern and Western Xiongnu. The Western Xiongnu assimilated into the Han dynasty. The Eastern Xiongnu, under joint attack from the Han and Xianbei, further divided into Southern and Northern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu also assimilated into the Han, while the Northern Xiongnu, driven out by the Xianbei chieftain Dan Shihuai, fled westward from the Mongolian steppe. Around the 4th century CE, they appeared in Europe as the Huns. It is presumed that many Xiongnu who had assimilated into the Han dynasty also migrated westward with these Northern Xiongnu.
Among the Xianbei who drove out the Xiongnu and occupied the Mongolian steppe, the Tuoba Xianbei unified the north during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, establishing the Northern Wei and ushering in the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. However, they regrettably abandoned their nomadic characteristics and assimilated into Chinese culture.
The emergence of the Xiongnu in Europe as Huns around the 4th century CE was a pivotal historical event. The Huns' appearance triggered the Great Migration of Germanic Peoples, ultimately leading to the fall of the Western Roman Empire at the hands of the Germanic mercenary general Odoacer. This marked a major historical turning point in Europe, ending the ancient era and beginning the Middle Ages. Notably, during the Huns' last king Attila's invasion of Western Rome, the Pope, rather than the Roman Emperor, negotiated with Attila. This event is seen as a key factor in the strengthening of papal authority and, consequently, a cause of the "Dark Ages" in Europe, where Christianity dominated. The influence and fear the Huns instilled in Europe were far greater than those caused by Genghis Khan's invasion of Europe some 700 years later.
Interestingly, the Xiongnu are called 'Xiōngnú' in Chinese and 'Hünnü' in Mongolian, while 'Hün' means 'person' in Mongolian. In Europe, the Xiongnu were called 'Huns,' and 'Hun' means 'person' in Mongolian, and 'human' in English. There seems to be some connection. For example, the Magyars of Hungary are still born with a Mongolian spot, and 'Hungary' is said to mean 'land of the Huns.' A few years ago, I visited a Hungarian restaurant in Mongolia, and the owner, a Hungarian Magyar, told me his sons were also born with Mongolian spots, and he had come to Mongolia to find his roots, planning to settle there. It seems the human curiosity to know one's origins is universal.
3. The Dominant Force of the Northern Steppe, The Xianbei (1st Century CE – 5th Century CE)
The Xianbei, a branch of the Donghu who settled near the Xianbei Mountains after being driven out by the Xiongnu, grew in power around the Xilamulun River in Manchuria. After Dan Shihuai expelled the Northern Xiongnu and occupied the Mongolian Plateau, they established the Northern Wei dynasty, shifting from a nomadic to a settled way of life.
Around this time in southern China, the Han dynasty fell, followed by the Three Kingdoms period. After China was reunified under the Western Jin by the Sima clan, the Rouran invasion forced the capital to relocate from Luoyang to Nanjing, beginning the Eastern Jin period. Meanwhile, the Xianbei occupied Youzhou (present-day Beijing) and established the state of Former Yan, which later became Later Yan. After the fall of Later Yan, the Tuoba Xianbei established the Northern Wei, one of the Five Barbarian and Sixteen Kingdoms, and unified the north, ushering in the Wei-Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties period where the Eastern Jin and Northern Wei faced each other across the border.
From the late 1st century, when the Xiongnu fell, until 581 CE, when China was reunified by Emperor Wen of Sui (who had Xianbei blood, as did his wife), a period of approximately 500 years can be considered the age of the Xianbei in China. Considering that Emperor Gaozu of Tang, Li Yuan, is also believed to have Xianbei blood, this period might extend to as long as 800 years.
4. The New Masters of the Mongolian Plateau, The Rouran (5th Century CE – 6th Century CE)
Like the Xianbei and Wuhuan, the Rouran were a branch of the Donghu. When the Xianbei abandoned the Mongolian Plateau to establish the Northern Wei in China, the Rouran occupied the vacant Mongolian Plateau. At this time, the Gaoju (High Cart) people occupied the area near the Qilian Mountains, and the Hephthalites succeeded the Kushan Empire in Central Asia. However, the Turkic people (Göktürks), who had been growing in power near the Altai Mountains, defeated the Gaoju and then immediately invaded the Rouran, taking control of the Mongolian Plateau.
5. The Empire Builders, The Göktürks (6th Century CE – 7th Century CE)
The Göktürks conquered the Gaoju people (also a Turkic branch) in the Qilian Mountains region in 547 CE, defeated the Rouran of the Mongolian Plateau in 555 CE, and then occupied the Hephthalites in Central Asia around 661 CE. The Göktürks did not stop there, continuing their westward advance to seize the lands of the Avars north of the Caspian Sea. The Avars were pushed back to the Hungarian Plain.
The Göktürks rapidly established a vast empire stretching from the Mongolian Plateau to the steppes north of the Caspian Sea. At this time, the world was divided into three major powers: the Göktürk Empire in the steppe regions, China (under the Sui and then Tang dynasties), and the Saracen Empire in the Arab regions. Of course, Goguryeo was located in the eastern region. Like the Xiongnu, the Göktürks were divided into Eastern and Western Göktürks due to the Tang dynasty's divisive tactics. The Western Göktürks became a quasi-vassal state of the Tang, and the Eastern Göktürks also weakened, eventually ceding the Mongolian steppe to the Uyghurs.
6. A Brief Interlude of Power, The Uyghurs (8th Century CE – 9th Century CE)
The Uyghurs were descendants of the Gaoju people, who had been defeated by the Göktürks near the Qilian Mountains. Taking advantage of the weakened Eastern Göktürks and the internal strife within the Tang dynasty that prevented it from focusing on external affairs, the Uyghurs took control of the Mongolian steppe in 744 CE. Although they belonged to the same Turkic lineage, they had long lived under the shadow of other powers and expertly seized the opportunity presented by their neighbors' weakening.
However, the Uyghurs' rule lasted less than 100 years, as they were overthrown by the smaller Kyrgyz Confederacy around 840 CE. The Kyrgyz Confederacy itself then disintegrated, leading to a period of about 300 years, from 840 CE until Genghis Khan unified the Mongolian Plateau in 1206 CE, during which no single powerful force dominated, and various minor factions vied for control.
7. The Shatuo Turks, Who Once Ruled China (9th Century CE – 10th Century CE)
In the southern part of the Mongolian Plateau, in what is now China's Gansu and Shanxi provinces, lived the Shatuo Turks, who maintained friendly relations with the Tang dynasty. Around this time, the Huang Chao Rebellion, famous for Choe Chiwon's 'Proclamation to Huang Chao,' erupted in the Tang dynasty. There was a shrewd individual named Zhu Wen, who initially joined Huang Chao's rebellion but then betrayed him and surrendered to the Tang when Huang Chao's forces seemed to be losing to the Tang-allied Shatuo Turks. Upon surrendering, Zhu Wen saw that the Tang dynasty was already greatly weakened, so he instead overthrew the Tang and established the Later Liang. The Shatuo Turks then destroyed the Later Liang and established the Later Tang, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period continued until China was unified by the Song dynasty in 980 CE.
8. The Great Power of East Asia, The Khitan (10th Century CE – 12th Century CE)
In the early 10th century, a remarkable figure named Yelü Abaoji unified the Khitan people, took control of the Shatuo lands, and also destroyed the Balhae kingdom to the east, forming a vast empire. Thus, until the Jurchen Jin dynasty attacked the Khitan in the 12th century, China was divided, with the Khitan's Liao Dynasty in the north and the Song Dynasty in the south.
After being attacked by the Jurchen Jin dynasty, the Khitan, under the leadership of Yelü Dashi, fled to Central Asia and established the Western Liao (Qara Khitai). Central Asia was then divided between Western Liao and Khwarezm, but both were eventually destroyed by Genghis Khan. Yelü Chucai, one of Genghis Khan's brilliant advisors, was of Khitan descent.
9. The New Masters of the Steppe, The Jurchen (12th Century CE – 17th Century CE)
Although the Khitan established the Liao dynasty in 926 CE after destroying Balhae, centering their power in Manchuria, they did not significantly affect the Jurchen people who lived quietly hidden in northern Manchuria, near present-day Harbin. During this period, a remarkable figure named Aguda emerged among the Jurchen and unified them. He later drove out the Khitan and established the Jin Dynasty.
The Khitan were driven to what is now Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, where they established the Western Liao. The Gansu and Shanxi regions were occupied by the Western Xia, founded by the Shatuo Turks. Thus, a four-state system emerged: the Jin Dynasty established by the Jurchen in the northern steppe, and the Southern Song Dynasty in the south. However, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty was also destroyed by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in the 1200s. They would remain quiet for several centuries, relinquishing their position as masters of the steppe until the Jurchen (Manchu) Qing Emperor Kangxi re-conquered the Mongolian steppe in the late 1600s.
10. The World Conquerors, The Mongols (13th Century CE – Early 20th Century CE)
After the Uyghurs were defeated by the Kyrgyz Confederacy, the Mongolian steppe remained without a strong dominant force for about 300 years, with various tribes like the Merkit, Tatar, Kereit, and Naiman vying for power. Then, in 1206 CE, Temüjin of the Borjigin clan, later known as Genghis Khan, unified the Mongolian Plateau. The subsequent Mongol conquests are a vast historical topic, so here I will briefly explain the lineage after Genghis Khan.
Genghis Khan had four sons: Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui. Jochi, the eldest, was born after Genghis Khan's principal wife, Börte, was captured by the Merkit tribe and became pregnant by an enemy chieftain. Genghis Khan, however, accepted Jochi as his own son and raised him without discrimination. This act of broad-mindedness, accepting a child conceived during his wife's unwilling capture, truly showed his masculine character.
Interestingly, Genghis Khan's mother, Hoelun, was also abducted by Genghis Khan's father, Yesügei, while on her way to marry a Merkit chieftain, and became Yesügei's wife. Furthermore, like Genghis Khan's wife Börte, Hoelun herself was abducted by the Merkit before giving birth to Genghis Khan and was later rescued. For these reasons, some scholars believe Genghis Khan's lineage might be connected to the Merkit people. Some even argue that these Merkit people were the Malgal (Mohe) people, who were major constituents of Goguryeo and Balhae. This theory suggests that after the fall of Balhae, they moved north into Mongolia and formed the Merkit tribe. If this claim is true, then Genghis Khan would be very closely related to us Koreans. While we learned that the Malgal were subjugated vassals of Goguryeo, the prevailing interpretation now is that they were a major ethnic group within Goguryeo and Balhae, and that they should not be seen as a foreign people, even if Goguryeo elites held more prominent positions.
However, there were indeed conflicts regarding Jochi's lineage. When Genghis Khan was to choose his successor, he wanted to name Jochi, but his second son, Chagatai, objected, stating that Jochi, not of their father's blood, could not be the Khan. Incidentally, 'Jochi' means 'guest' in Mongolian. Was it perhaps meant to signify an unwanted guest? As a result, the third son, Ögedei, inherited the title of Khan. After Jochi's death, his son Batu was tasked with the European campaign and established the Golden Horde (Kipchak Khanate) with the Volga River basin in Russia as its base. His descendants ruled Russia for approximately 300 years, making it the longest-lasting of the four Mongol Khanates.
The other Khanates included the Chagatai Khanate in southern Central Asia, the Ögedei Khanate in northern Central Asia, and the Ilkhanate established by Hülegü, the third son of Genghis Khan's youngest son, Tolui, in the Iranian and Arab regions after overthrowing the Saracen Abbasid Caliphate.
Ögedei established the central capital of the Mongol Empire at Karakorum (west of present-day Ulaanbaatar, the Mongolian capital) and ruled the empire. After Ögedei's death, his son Güyük was enthroned as the third Great Khan but died within a few years. Then, Batu from Jochi's house nominated Möngke, the eldest son of Tolui's (the youngest uncle's) house, and from the 4th Great Khan onward, Tolui's house occupied the Khanate. Around this time, among Genghis Khan's sons, Jochi's house and Tolui's house formed an alliance, while Chagatai's house and Ögedei's house formed another, creating a period of rivalry.
Originally, Tolui, as the youngest son, received the largest share of the army and wealth as inheritance from Genghis Khan according to Mongol custom. However, after Ögedei became Khan, Tolui was effectively stripped of his wealth, and historical records state that he later committed suicide for his brother Ögedei. There are claims, however, that it might have been an assassination by Ögedei. In any case, Tolui's family fell into decline and faced difficulties. Fortunately, thanks to the political and diplomatic prowess of his intelligent wife, Sorghaghtani Beki, they spectacularly revived and reclaimed the title of Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki also had four sons: Möngke, Kublai, Hülegü, and Ariq Böke, in order.
With Batu's help, Möngke was enthroned as the 4th Great Khan. After Möngke's sudden death during his campaign against the Southern Song dynasty in China, a succession struggle ensued between his younger brother Kublai and his youngest brother Ariq Böke. Kublai emerged victorious and ascended to the position of 5th Great Khan. At this time, Hülegü, who had conquered the Arab regions and established the Ilkhanate, sided with Kublai but did not directly intervene, remaining in the Ilkhanate, which gradually became Arabized and Islamized by his descendants.
Upon becoming Khan, Kublai abandoned Karakorum, where his youngest brother Ariq Böke's forces still held sway. He established Dadu (大都), present-day Beijing, as his capital and moved the capital there. He also changed the name of the empire to the Great Yuan Empire, attempting to transform it from a nomadic nation into a settled one. However, just about 90 years later, during the reign of the last Yuan emperor, Emperor Shun (Toghon Temür), they were driven out by Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming dynasty, and forced back to Shangdu and Karakorum, beginning the Northern Yuan period.
Toghon Temür was the husband of Empress Gi (Qi), who was featured in a recent Korean drama. Although I haven't watched the drama, I've heard that Empress Gi was significantly romanticized. While it's true that she was a remarkable figure who rose from a Goryeo Gongnyeo (tribute woman) to Empress of the Yuan dynasty, her historical record doesn't seem to have been particularly positive for either her home country, Goryeo, or her husband's Mongol Yuan dynasty. Nevertheless, it is somewhat significant that Toghon Temür and Empress Gi's descendants served as Khans during the early Northern Yuan period for three generations.
As you know, Kublai treated Goryeo better than any other Mongol-dominated state, likely because he saw them as a close, fraternal nation by blood. Starting with King Chungnyeol, who married Kublai's daughter, and continuing until King Gongmin, who pursued anti-Yuan policies, all Goryeo kings married Mongol princesses. I calculated that by the time of King Gongmin, 7/8 of his blood was Mongol, and only 1/8 was Goryeo. For King Gongmin to pursue anti-Yuan policies and achieve independent status from Yuan's interference, it's more accurate to see his actions as a pursuit of political independence rather than a matter of bloodline. While the aid of Princess Nogukdaejang, a Yuan princess, might have played a role, I believe Princess Noguk would not have viewed King Gongmin as purely Goryeo. It is more reasonable to view this event as a political independence movement seizing the opportunity of the Yuan's political weakening.
In addition to his four sons, Genghis Khan had three younger brothers: Qasar, another whose name isn't mentioned, and the youngest, Otchigin. Genghis Khan bequeathed vast Khanates to his sons, but to his brothers, he granted smaller territories in Manchuria, allowing them to establish kingdoms rather than Khanates. While the Manchurian region might not have seemed ideal to nomads, the Manchurian Plain was in fact fertile and densely populated, leading to the prosperity of his brothers' kingdoms. Kublai himself received significant help from his uncle Otchigin's family during his struggle against his youngest brother Ariq Böke.
Yi An-sa, the grandfather of Yi Seong-gye, who founded the Joseon Dynasty, is said to have moved from Jeonju to Manchuria and served as a Chiliarch (commander of a thousand) for Otchigin's family. It seems he served as a military leader for Otchigin's family, a regional Mongol power, and when the Mongols weakened and Goryeo gained independent strength under King Gongmin, he returned to his homeland Goryeo. He then built his power as a military commander, and through the Wihwado Retreat, he launched a dynastic revolution and established Joseon.
In any case, the Manchurian region, where Genghis Khan's brothers' families resided (now China's Inner Mongolia), harbored a subtle sense of discrimination towards the Mongol homeland. Even after the Jurchen Qing Dynasty unified China, they treated the Mongols favorably through Manchu-Mongol marriage alliances. This treatment, however, was primarily directed towards the Inner Mongols (i.e., descendants of Genghis Khan's brothers) in Manchuria, while the Outer Mongolia (Mongol homeland) experienced internal conflicts, including invasions in cooperation with the Qing and Inner Mongols. This is why, when Mongolia gained independence, Inner Mongolia chose not to join them and remained part of China, becoming Chinese territory today. It seems small historical events often lead to significant differences in outcomes.
As an interesting anecdote, the hamburger we eat today is said to have originated from the Mongols. Mongols carried 'borts,' a type of dried meat powder, under their saddles. As the meat powder softened, they would mix it with water and consume it. This simple meal provided a relatively unburdened food supply for the rear, crucially enhancing their combat effectiveness and mobility.
Seeing this Mongol method of eating, merchants in Hamburg, Germany, began selling ground meat cooked over fire in the Mongol style, calling it Tartar steak. When these Hamburg merchants emigrated to the United States and continued their business, Tartar steak became Hamburg steak, or hamburger steak. Later, it evolved into putting the cooked ground meat between two slices of bread for convenience, thus becoming today's hamburger.
But why did Europeans call the Mongols 'Tatars' instead of 'Mongols,' and refer to Mongol rule as the 'Tatar Yoke'? This was because Europeans realized that the Mongol allied forces included Tatars, and the word 'Tartarus,' meaning 'hell' in Greek, was invoked, leading them to collectively refer to the Mongol allied forces as 'Tatars.' In reality, most of the Mongol army consisted of Turkic peoples, and all these allied Mongol tribes combined accounted for only about 1/8 of the total.
11. The Last Nomads, The Dzungars (17th Century CE – 18th Century CE)
The Dzungars, known as the 'last nomads,' were a state founded by the Oirat tribe, a Mongol tribe based in the Junggar Basin west of the Altai Mountains and north of the Tian Shan Mountains. They formed their power in the mid-17th century when Galdan Khan unified the region. Galdan, having unified Western Mongolia, invaded Eastern Mongolia, and Jebtsundamba, the leader of Eastern Mongolia, sought help from Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty by moving south.
Emperor Kangxi launched four campaigns against Galdan, but Galdan's downfall was less due to Kangxi's campaigns and more because his nephew betrayed him in his home territory while he was away campaigning in Eastern Mongolia, leaving Galdan isolated and without support. Although the Dzungars survived after Galdan's death, they were later annihilated by Emperor Qianlong, with most of the Dzungar people being exterminated. Emperor Qianlong then invited the Torghut tribe, who had previously lived in the area but were driven out by the Oirat tribe and migrated to the Volga River basin in Russia, to settle in this region. This area is now the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China, where conflicts over independence from China persist. Furthermore, under Emperor Qianlong, Eastern Mongolia also came under Qing rule, bringing an end to the Mongol Empire, which had barely maintained its existence since the Northern Yuan period. When the Qing Empire fell with the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing with Russian assistance. China, the successor to the Qing, attempted to invade Mongolia again, but in 1921, only Outer Mongolia achieved independence from China, leading to the present-day Mongolia.
The Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty had the surname Aisin Gioro (愛新覺羅), which is said to mean 'love and remember Silla.' The 'History of Jin' records that the Jin dynasty was founded by Kim Ham-bo, a Silla person. It also states that the ancestors of Jin came from the Malgal (Mohe) clan, whose original name was Mulgil (勿吉), referring to the ancient Sukshen (肅愼) land, which was Zhoushen, and thus Joseon. It is speculated that Kim Ham-bo, or Kim Aguda, may have been a descendant of Prince Ma-ui, Kim Il, son of King Gyeongsun, the last king of Silla. If Malgal is connected to the Mongol Merkit tribe, then there's a connection to Genghis Khan. In that sense, I feel a special affinity for the Mongol and Qing Empires.
The history of the steppe nomads is not merely a tale of the past. Their movements and settlements, conquests and interactions, profoundly influenced the culture, politics, and society of vast regions spanning East Asia, Central Asia, and Europe. The connections between Jin Midi and the Silla Kim clan, Genghis Khan and the Malgal people, and Yi Seong-gye and the Mongol tribes of Manchuria demonstrate that the history of the Korean people is not isolated but intricately woven into the grand tapestry of steppe nomadic movements. Through their history, we can discover the diverse faces of human civilization and the surprising connections hidden within them.
