Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire: Nomadic Dreams Engulf the World
Before the emergence of Genghis Khan, the Mongolian Plateau was a land of chaos, plagued by endless inter-tribal conflicts and plunder. Numerous nomadic tribes such as the Tatars, Oirats, and Merkits constantly shed blood, sometimes invading the northern plains of China and being scorned by the Chinese as "barbarians." It's said that the term "Xiongnu" meant "ferocious tribe," and Qin Shi Huang built the Great Wall out of fear of these northern nomads. The idiom "heaven is high, and horses are fat" (천고마비, cheongo-mabi) also reflects the Chinese people's vigilance against the Mongols, who invaded with their fattened horses in autumn. This illustrates how formidable the Mongols were, with their exceptional horsemanship and combat skills.
As time passed, the Jurchens in Manchuria, under the leadership of Aguda, established the Jin Dynasty and pushed the Song Dynasty southward. The Jin Dynasty even invaded the northern Mongolian Plateau and brutally killed Ambaghai Khan, a Mongol chieftain. This instilled a deep desire for revenge against the Jin in the Mongols, which would later ignite Genghis Khan's wars of conquest.
The Dawn of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire
Around 1162, while the Mongols were under Jin rule, Temujin was born near the headwaters of the Onon and Kherlen Rivers. He was born clutching a blood clot in his tiny hand, which aligned with the Mongol belief that he would become a hero of the steppes. His father, Yesugei, was a valiant chieftain of the Mongol tribe, known as "Baghatur" (hero), who had rebuilt the Mongol tribe after it was nearly dismantled by the Jin. Temujin's name itself was taken from a Tatar chieftain whom Yesugei had defeated.
In his childhood, Temujin lost his father to Tatar poisoning at the age of nine and grew up in extreme poverty and danger. He endured humiliation when captured by those who feared his growth, and faced such hardship that he even resorted to eating rats when hungry. However, he persistently overcame adversity, building his strength with the help of his father's sworn brother, Toghrul Khan of the Keraites, and his own sworn brother Jamukha. Yet, when even they became fearful of Temujin's rising power and tried to eliminate him, Temujin successfully built his own powerful force by expanding his tribe independently. His remaining goal was his father's aspiration: the "unification of the steppe."
The Beginning of the Great Conquest Era: The Birth of Genghis Khan
In the autumn, when horses were fat and cavalry morale was high, Genghis Khan led thousands of horsemen to embark on his journey of revenge. He decisively crushed the Taichuud tribe, who had betrayed his father's tribe and massacred its people, and annihilated the Tatars, who had poisoned his father. He also defeated Jamukha and Toghrul Khan's Kereit tribe, who had betrayed him out of fear of his growth. Other tribes were astonished by his astonishing speed of conquest and united under Jamukha to resist, but it was already too late. Temujin subjugated the surrounding small and large tribes, captured Jamukha, and executed him.
He didn't stop there. He subjugated the powerful Naiman tribe of Western Mongolia and ordered his son Jochi to conquer the forest people and the Tumats to the north. Hearing of Genghis Khan's fame, the Tumats voluntarily surrendered, and the Oirats and Kyrgyz tribes also knelt at his feet. Thus, in 1206, Temujin conquered all regions of the Mongolian Plateau—north, west, east, and south—achieving the unification of the steppe.
In 1206, at a Khurultai (grand assembly) held near the upper reaches of the Onon River, Temujin was granted the honorific title "Genghis Khan" and reformed the unified Mongol state's institutions. "Genghis Khan" is interpreted as a shamanistic spiritual entity meaning "Son of Heaven," which added religious authority to his status. He established the "myriarchy system" (system of ten thousands) as a military structure, enabling him to move hundreds of thousands of soldiers in perfect order, and set up a system of "relay stations" (Yam) across the country to ensure fast and efficient communication.
Advance Towards the World: Expansion of the Mongol Empire
(1) Invasion of Western Xia In 1206, the first overseas expedition of the Mongol army began with an attack on Western Xia, a Tangut state in northwestern China. Genghis Khan adopted a new siege warfare tactic to conquer walled cities, unlike their previous cavalry-focused approach. Although they initially suffered heavy casualties and morale declined, the Mongol army soon adapted to siege warfare and, with numerical superiority, drove Western Xia's capital, Olukhay, to the brink of collapse. Ultimately, the Western Xia king sent an envoy to surrender, and the Mongols gained significant spoils from their first overseas campaign, beginning to make their name known.
(2) Conquest of the Jin Dynasty In 1211, Genghis Khan embarked on the conquest of the Jin Dynasty, the Mongols' long-standing adversary. By subjugating the Ongud tribe in Inner Mongolia, he gained control of most of the area north of the Yellow River and advanced toward Zhongdu (present-day Beijing), the Jin capital. The Jin Dynasty relied on the Great Wall, but the Mongol army breached Zhangjiakou and besieged Zhongdu. In 1214, suffering from material shortages, the Jin Dynasty requested peace by sending vast amounts of wealth and horses, which Genghis Khan accepted, returning to the Mongolian Plateau. This event significantly altered the political landscape of East Asia.
(3) Purging Remnant Tribes and Conquest of Khwarazm In 1216, Genghis Khan purged the remaining remnant tribes of the Mongolian Plateau, particularly the Merkits, who had disgraced his wife Börte. The Mongol army, led by the formidable general Subutai, completely annihilated the Merkit and Kyrgyz remnants, gaining full control of northern Mongolia.
In 1219, enraged by the killing of Mongol merchants during trade with the Khwarazmian Empire, Genghis Khan launched an expedition to conquer Khwarazm. First, he attacked Qara Khitai (Western Liao), which was blocking the Western trade routes, and then led a massive army of 600,000 to capture Otrar, a major city in Khwarazm. Mongol morale soared, and Khwarazm rapidly collapsed. A detached force led by Jebe and Subutai chased the Khwarazmshah to the Caspian Sea, where he died (1220), while Genghis Khan's main army conquered Bukhara. Jebe and Subutai's detached force crossed the Caucasus Mountains, conquering southern Russia, the Kipchak Steppe, and the Crimean Peninsula. Genghis Khan's three sons (Jochi, Chagatai, and Ögedei) also achieved great military feats, including the conquest of Urgench, the Khwarazmian capital. By 1222, Khwarazm had fallen to the Mongol army.
Genghis Khan's Death and the Succession of the Empire
The joy of the Khwarazmian conquest was short-lived. Genghis Khan received news that the surrendered Western Xia king had rebelled, threatening the eastern front. Furthermore, with the death of the formidable general Muqali, Genghis Khan became enraged, turned his army eastward, and reinvaded Western Xia. In the autumn of 1226, he advanced through Western Xia, occupying Xiliang Prefecture, and in winter, besieged Zhongxing, the Western Xia capital. The following year, he was wounded by an enemy arrow during the siege, but he continued to command his troops, conquering Heishui City and beheading the Western Xia king. However, despite his injuries, Genghis Khan continued to command relentlessly, and his wound worsened, leading to a high fever. He died on his way back to Mongolia. Before his death, he designated his third son, Ögedei, as his successor.
The Reign of Ögedei Khan: Continued Conquests and the Birth of a City
Ögedei Khan, following in the footsteps of his father Genghis Khan, did not cease the wars of conquest.
(1) The Fall of the Jin Dynasty In 1230, Ögedei Khan, along with his younger brother Tolui, embarked on an expedition against the Jin Dynasty. Already severely weakened by the Mongols' first attack, the Jin army's morale was low, and they could not put up effective resistance. The Mongol army captured numerous large and small Jin fortresses and besieged Zhongdu, the capital. Although the Jin desperately defended with new gunpowder weapons like the "flying fire spears," they eventually succumbed to constant Mongol assaults, running out of food and weapons. In 1234, the Jin capital of Zhongdu fell to the Mongol army, and the Mongols thoroughly destroyed the Jin Dynasty, achieving their revenge against their long-time adversary.
(2) The Birth of Karakorum and the Goryeo Campaigns After conquering the Jin, the Mongols, for the first time in their history, built a city called "Karakorum" and made it their capital. This was a revolutionary change for the nomadic Mongols, and the Mongol Empire began to transform into a settled kingdom.
Ögedei Khan used the assassination of a Mongol envoy as an excuse to invade Goryeo. Although this was a trick instigated by the Jurchens, Goryeo, then weakened by power struggles between civil and military officials, was unable to repel the Mongol invasion. The Mongols' first invasion failed when their general Salih-tai was killed by an arrow from Goryeo general Kim Yun-hu. Nevertheless, Goryeo was eventually forced to establish a "Darughachi" (administrative official) appointed by the Mongols, effectively placing it under their sphere of influence.
(3) Batu's European Campaigns Ögedei Khan didn't stop there; he even planned a European campaign. Having already conquered the Kipchak and Southern Russian regions during Genghis Khan's time, the Mongols could not overlook the presence of Russia on their western front, and their curiosity about Europe grew as more information spread.
In 1236, a 100,000-strong European expeditionary force, with Batu, the son of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, appointed as commander-in-chief, moved westward. Batu crossed the frozen Volga River and attacked Moscow in Russia, commencing the European campaign. The Russian forces were greatly intimidated by the Mongol army and could not fight effectively, leading to the fall of Moscow and several other cities. Russia thus began a humiliating 100-year history under Mongol domination. After conquering Russia, the Mongol army continued westward, occupying Kyiv in present-day Ukraine and establishing a foothold for further expansion into Eastern Europe.
In 1241, the Mongol army invaded Poland and Hungary. Although these kingdoms formed alliances to resist, the Mongols defeated their armies and occupied Budapest, the Hungarian capital, and parts of Poland, causing great shock throughout Europe. Western European countries felt threatened, and Henry II, Duke of Silesia, organized a combined German and Polish army of 200,000 to confront the Mongols.
In the "Battle of Legnica" (Walstatt) fought in the Walstatt region of Germany, the allied forces scorned the Mongols' humble silk and leather armor, but the Mongols' light equipment and superior horsemanship increased their mobility by more than three times. The allied forces foolishly engaged only in cavalry combat and were annihilated by the Mongol army in 1241. The Western Christian world was horrified, and some religious organizations even called the Mongol army "the army of the devil sent by Satan."
Eastern Europe was almost completely conquered by the Mongols, and Western Europe also trembled in fear, watching the Mongol invasion unfold. Then, good news reached the Western world: Ögedei Khan's sudden death led to the Mongol army's withdrawal. Europe was able to escape the crisis of war, and Batu established the "Golden Horde" in the conquered Russian lands. The Mongols never invaded Europe again afterward, having lost interest in the "weak and insignificant" European lands.
The Chaos of Guyuk Khan's Reign
After Ögedei Khan's death, his eldest son Güyük Khan ascended to the throne, but his enthronement was controversial. He was an incompetent ruler who indulged in alcohol and pleasure, and during his eight-year reign, the Mongol Empire entered a period of stagnation. As Güyük Khan's misrule intensified, Batu sent assassins to eliminate him, and a formal Khurultai was convened again, where Möngke, the eldest son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, was elected as the Great Khan. With this, the Mongol Empire began to intensify its wars of conquest once more.
The Reign of Möngke Khan: The Flames of Conquest Reignite
Möngke Khan, harboring ambitions to conquer all of China, sent troops to the Southern Song Dynasty and ordered his younger brother Hulagu to conquer West Asia and the Arab world. Furthermore, as Goryeo continued to resist the Mongols, he sent armies, but Goryeo's military regime resisted by relocating its capital to Ganghwa Island. Möngke Khan underestimated Goryeo, and despite repeated failures in his campaigns, he sent a letter demanding Goryeo's surrender, which was refused. As his main forces were already deployed to the Southern Song and Persia, Möngke Khan could not fully subjugate Goryeo.
(1) Conquest of Southern Song and Neighboring States Meanwhile, Kublai (Tolui's second son, who later founded the Yuan Dynasty), the commander-in-chief of the Southern Song conquest army, and Uriyangkhadai planned to first subjugate the states surrounding the Southern Song. Kublai invaded Tibet, securing the surrender of the Dalai Lama, and took Prince Phags-pa as a captive. This Phags-pa would later create the Phags-pa script, a unique Mongol writing system. Kublai also peacefully occupied the neighboring Dali Kingdom (present-day Yunnan Province). Upon returning to Karakorum, he entrusted the surrounding smaller states and Annam (Vietnam) to his deputy commander Uriyangkhadai. Uriyangkhadai secured the surrender of Annam's Trần Dynasty and conquered Hanoi. However, due to Möngke Khan's sudden death, Kublai had to turn his army back just before entering Southern Song territory, granting the Southern Song a temporary reprieve.
(2) Hulagu's Conquest of the Abbasid Caliphate and Syria Hulagu, ordered to conquer Persia, led 60,000 horsemen, pacifying West Asia and advancing toward the Abbasid Caliphate, a powerful entity in the Arab world. Hulagu first attacked the headquarters of the Ismaili Assassins, who had been assassinating Mongol Darughachi, and massacred their assassination force. Afterward, he invaded the Abbasid Caliphate, annihilating the 100,000-strong cavalry army of General Ays-beg using a water diversion tactic (breaching dams). The high-spirited Mongol army besieged Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and a great Islamic city, and eventually, the city, famous for its brilliant Islamic culture, fell to the Mongol army.
With the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate, the hegemon of the Islamic world, neighboring countries were unsettled, but only Syria refused to submit to Hulagu. Hulagu invaded Syria, which was not part of his original plan, capturing Aleppo and besieging its capital, Damascus. The Syrian king fled with his family to the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, and Damascus easily fell to the Mongol army. After conquering Syria, Hulagu attempted to invade Jerusalem, which was under Mamluk control, but failed. Hulagu stopped his advance and established the "Ilkhanate" in the conquered lands, ruling over the Islamic world.
Kublai Khan's Accession and the Birth of the Yuan Dynasty
Upon Möngke Khan's death during the Southern Song campaign, his younger brother Kublai returned to Karakorum and defeated his younger brother Ariq Böke in a struggle for the Great Khanate, becoming the legitimate Great Khan. In 1264, Kublai Khan ascended as the fifth Emperor of the Mongol Empire, changing the dynasty's name to "Yuan" (元) and moving the capital from Karakorum to Dadu (present-day Beijing). Although he was an unorthodox figure to Mongols who valued nomadic traditions, the Mongol Empire entered its golden age under Kublai Khan's leadership. Marco Polo's travels in China also occurred during this period.
(1) The Completion of the Largest Land Empire in History In 1279, Kublai Khan ordered the formidable general Bayan to resume the Southern Song campaign, which had failed during Möngke Khan's time. Bayan finally crushed the Southern Song, capturing and beheading Emperor Gong. He also suppressed Kaidu's rebellion, which had occurred before the Southern Song campaign, providing a clear example to deter any future defiance against the Yuan Dynasty. Kaidu's rebellion was sparked by his dissatisfaction with Kublai Khan's monopolization of the Great Khanate by the Toluid line and the neglect of the Ögedeid Ulus. However, it was suppressed by the Yuan Dynasty's elite forces led by Bayan, and Kaidu lived his life as a fugitive. Thus, Kublai Khan definitively conquered all of China, and the Yuan Dynasty came to rule the largest land empire in history.
(2) Goryeo's Resistance Against the Mongols Despite Goryeo acknowledging Mongolia as its suzerain, Kublai Khan sent large armies to Goryeo, using the pretext of still-resisting civilian forces. The Yuan army crossed the Amnok River and attacked Goryeo, but Goryeo's righteous armies rose up to protect their half-millennium-old homeland, refusing to acknowledge the king's subservience to the Yuan. The Sambyeolcho, a civilian military unit, also inflicted significant defeats on the Yuan forces at sea. However, as the Goryeo court collaborated with the Yuan to suppress the righteous armies and the Sambyeolcho, the Yuan army eventually withdrew completely. This left Goryeo subject to Yuan interference and obligated to pay annual tribute.
(3) Yuan Expeditions to Southeast Asia Kublai Khan swept through Southeast Asia, including Annam (Vietnam) and the Pagan Kingdom (Myanmar), extracting tribute from various smaller states, and also sent troops towards Indonesia, specifically Java. The Java expedition was a retaliatory measure against the Javanese kingdom that had tattooed the face of a Yuan envoy. Although 20,000 troops were dispatched under Commander Saphil, the Javanese king had already been killed, and the Singhasari Kingdom had fallen. Despite suffering heavy losses due to the stratagem of Wijaya, the son-in-law of King Kertanagara, the expedition eventually succeeded in subduing Java's enemies. Wijaya then established the Majapahit Kingdom and pledged allegiance to the Yuan, extending Mongol influence to the southernmost tip of Southeast Asia.
(4) Yuan Invasions of Japan and Failure Kublai Khan's campaigns of conquest did not stop there; they turned towards Japan. Using the "Seito Shosei" (Expeditionary Department to Conquer the East) established in Goryeo as a base, he procured warships and supplies for the Japan expeditions. At the time, Japan was ruled by the Kamakura Shogunate, which was worried about a Yuan invasion.
However, the Mongol army, weak in naval warfare, failed in both of its two invasions of Japan. In the first expedition, the Mongol forces landed in Hakata Bay and were about to begin their invasion of the mainland when they were struck by a massive storm known as "Kamikaze" (divine wind), losing their fighting spirit and retreating. If not for the storm, Japan too would likely have been conquered. This Kamikaze storm occurred during both the first and second expeditions, causing significant damage to the Mongol army's landing operations in Japan, and later became the origin of calling Japan's suicide attack units during the Pacific War "Kamikaze Special Attack Units."
The Mongol Empire Fades into History
After Kublai Khan's death, the Mongol Empire gradually began to fragment with the emergence of incompetent emperors. In 1368, the Yuan Dynasty was completely expelled from China by the Red Turban Rebellion, led by the Han Chinese Zhu Yuanzhang (Ming Taizu). With the collapse of the Yuan, which had effectively functioned as the empire, the Mongol Empire entered a period of decline. Thus, Mongol world domination seemed to gradually disappear into history.
However, Mongol rule persisted in Russia for a long time. The "Golden Horde," established by Batu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, ruled Russia until the 16th century. The Crimean Khanate's territory remained until 1738. Other sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan also established dynasties and ruled in Central Asia and Persia. In the 14th century, with Samarkand as its capital, a ruler controlled the lands of Chagatai Khan and the Kipchak Khan, even advancing into India and defeating the Ottoman Turks. Timur, who died while on his way to conquer the Ming Dynasty, also claimed Mongol ancestry and descent from Genghis Khan.
While the Timurid dynasty ended in the 15th century, Mongol conquests were not over. Babur (1483–1530), the founder of the Mughal Empire in India (Mughal means "Mongol" in Arabic), a descendant of Timur's grandson's grandson, invaded India and established the Mughal Dynasty. The Mughal Empire conquered almost all of India, maintaining its power until it was overthrown by the British in the mid-18th century. Although the Yuan Dynasty fell, the afterglow of the Mongol Empire continued to burn in places like India and Russia.
The Mongol Empire founded by Genghis Khan declined after Kublai's death, and after the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, other Khanates gradually lost their power. Although the Golden Horde in Russia continued to rule Russia, the Mongol Empire was no longer a world-dominating power.
The vast Mongol Empire, which suddenly appeared, plunged the world into a storm of war, and defeated dozens of large and small empires to reign as the world's hegemon. And the great Genghis Khan, who achieved it. Their emergence might be considered a misfortune in human history. Countless lives were sacrificed, warfare and slaughter were incessant, and wherever they went, not a blade of grass was left. Those who resisted were massacred most cruelly, and city walls crumbled into dust.
Yet, it is clear that the Mongol Empire was great. They started from a small tribe and came to dominate not only China but the world. The incessant drive and the power emanating from it. The power that dominated the world and controlled various peoples, though born of force and blood, was truly great when evaluated dispassionately. Historically, no other empire has ruled as many peoples and as vast a territory as the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire unified the world and flung open the doors to human exchange that had been closed by religion and ideology. Although the Mongol Empire destroyed the world, paradoxically, it also promoted the development of world culture.
The Mongol Empire that once ruled the world! Now, they live on as the "Mongolian People's Republic," leaving their glorious history behind.
